Scientific References: Microhacks - Hormones, Cell Energy & Longevity
Scientific Sources
Card Deck "Hormones, Cell Energy & Longevity"
This directory documents the scientific literature that forms the basis of the cards in this deck. It is organized by card theme: for each theme, you will find the relevant publications with a direct link to the original source. Relevant content statements should be traceable to verifiable, peer-reviewed journal articles. Commonly known statements are not referenced here.
The listed sources serve for scientific classification and traceability. They do not constitute medical advice and do not replace consultation with a physician. The citation of a study does not imply a claim of healing or efficacy.
Status: July 2026 · 149 References
Most Important Fundamentals
Topics: recommended exercise volume, sleep duration, social inclusion, meaning of life, nutritional quality, role of mitochondria.
- Bull, F. C., et al. (2020). World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54(24), 1451–1462.
- Shailendra, P., et al. (2022). Resistance training and mortality risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 63(2), 277–285.
- Hirshkowitz, M., et al. (2015). National Sleep Foundation's updated sleep duration recommendations. Sleep Health, 1(4), 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2015.10.004
- Holt-Lunstad, J., et al. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352
- Holt-Lunstad, J., et al. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk. PLOS Medicine, 7(7), e1000316. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316
- Cohen, R., et al. (2016). Purpose in life and its relationship to all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events. Psychosomatic Medicine, 78(2), 122–133. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000274
- Lane, M. M., et al. (2024). Ultra-processed food exposure and adverse health outcomes. BMJ, 384, e077310. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-077310
- Barbaresko, J., et al. (2024). Ultra-processed food consumption and human health. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 65(11), 1999–2007. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2024.2317877
- Brand, M. D., et al. (2013). The role of mitochondrial function and cellular bioenergetics in ageing and disease. British Journal of Dermatology, 169(Suppl. 2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12208
- Lanza, I. R., et al. (2010). Mitochondrial function as a determinant of life span. Pflügers Archiv – European Journal of Physiology, 459(2), 277–289.
Biological Regulation
Topics: Allostasis and resource prioritization under stress, low-grade chronic inflammation, omega-3 and cell membrane function.
- McEwen, B. S., et al. (2003). The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine. Hormones and Behavior, 43(1), 2–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0018-506X(02)00024-7
- Chrousos, G. P. (2009). Stress and disorders of the stress system. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 5(7), 374–381. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2009.106
- Franceschi, C., et al. (2014). Chronic inflammation (inflammaging) and its potential contribution to age-associated diseases. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 69(Suppl. 1), S4–S9. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glu057
- Liao, Y., et al. (2022). Possible antidepressant mechanisms of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids acting on the central nervous system. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 933704. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.933704
Cholecalciferol (Sun Hormone & Gene Regulator)
Topics: VDR and gene regulation, latitude and seasonally dependent requirements, DGE and EFSA reference values, magnesium as a cofactor, vitamin K2 and calcium distribution.
- Bouillon, R., et al. (2019). Skeletal and extraskeletal actions of vitamin D. Endocrine Reviews, 40(4), 1109–1151. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2018-00126
- Zmijewski, M. A. (2019). Vitamin D and human health. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(1), 145. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20010145
- Cashman, K. D., et al. (2008). Estimation of the dietary requirement for vitamin D in healthy adults. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 88(6), 1535–1542. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2008.26594
- EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies. (2012). Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level of vitamin D. EFSA Journal, 10(7), 2813. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2813
- Uwitonze, A. M., et al. (2018). Role of magnesium in vitamin D activation and function. Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, 118(3), 181–189. https://doi.org/10.7556/jaoa.2018.037
- Schurgers, L. J., et al. (2008). Matrix Gla-protein: the calcification inhibitor in need of vitamin K. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 100(4), 593–603. https://doi.org/10.1160/TH08-02-0087
Thyroid Hormones (Metabolic Pacemakers)
Topics: thyroid hormones in energy metabolism, T4-to-T3 conversion and reverse T3, thyroid and lipid metabolism, ferritin and thyroid function.
- Mullur, R., et al. (2014). Thyroid hormone regulation of metabolism. Physiological Reviews, 94(2), 355–382. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00030.2013
- Warner, M. H., et al. (2010). Mechanisms behind the non-thyroidal illness syndrome: an update. Journal of Endocrinology, 205(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1677/JOE-09-0412
- Liu, H., et al. (2022). Update on dyslipidemia in hypothyroidism. Endocrine Connections, 11(2), e210002. https://doi.org/10.1530/EC-21-0002
- Shin, D.-J., et al. (2003). Thyroid hormone regulation and cholesterol metabolism connected through SREBP-2. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 278(36), 34114–34118. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M305417200
- Soriguer, F., et al. (2011). Iron deficiency is associated with hypothyroxinemia and hypotriiodothyroninemia (Di@bet.es study). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5919900/
- Garofalo, V., et al. (2023). Relationship between iron deficiency and thyroid function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 15(22), 4790. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15224790
Insulin (Energy Distribution & Fat Storage)
Topics: insulin action and insulin resistance, vinegar and postprandial glucose response, HOMA-IR as a measure.
- Petersen, M. C., et al. (2018). Mechanisms of insulin action and insulin resistance. Physiological Reviews, 98(4), 2133–2223. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00063.2017
- Shishehbor, F., et al. (2017). Vinegar consumption can attenuate postprandial glucose and insulin responses. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 127, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.01.021
- Matthews, D. R., et al. (1985). Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and β-cell function. Diabetologia, 28(7), 412–4419. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00280883
- Tang, Q., et al. (2015). Optimal cut-off values for the HOMA-IR and the metabolic syndrome. Drug Discoveries & Therapeutics, 9(6), 380–385. https://doi.org/10.5582/ddt.2015.01207
Cortisol (Chronic Stress & Energy Provision)
Topics: circadian cortisol rhythm and cortisol awakening response, consequences of chronic stress, vitamin C in the adrenal gland, slow breathing and parasympathetic nervous system.
- Adam, E. K., et al. (2017). Diurnal cortisol slopes and mental and physical health outcomes. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 83, 25–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.05.018
- Clow, A., et al. (2010). The cortisol awakening response: more than a measure of HPA axis function. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(1), 97–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.12.011
- Chrousos, G. P. (2009). Stress and disorders of the stress system. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 5(7), 374–381. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2009.106
- Patak, P., et al. (2009). Vitamin C is an important cofactor for both adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. Endocrine Research, 30(4), 871–875. https://doi.org/10.1081/ERC-200044126
- Zaccaro, A., et al. (2018). How breath-control can change your life: a systematic review on psychophysiological correlates of slow breathing. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 353. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00353
Adrenaline (Acute Alarm & Fight/Flight)
Topics: acute stress response to psychosocial stimuli, diving reflex and heart rate, cognitive reappraisal, slow exhalation.
- Chrousos, G. P. (2009). Stress and disorders of the stress system. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 5(7), 374–381. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2009.106
- Panneton, W. M. (2013). The mammalian diving response: an enigmatic reflex to preserve life? Physiology, 28(5), 284–297. https://doi.org/10.1152/physiol.00020.2013
- Brooks, A. W. (2014). Get excited: reappraising pre-performance anxiety as excitement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(3), 1144–1158. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035325
- Zaccaro, A., et al. (2018). How breath-control can change your life. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 353. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00353
Dopamine (Drive & Goal Pursuit)
Topics: reward system and receptor sensitivity, reward prediction and sub-goals, physical activity, cold exposure.
- Volkow, N. D., et al. (2017). The dopamine motive system: implications for drug and food addiction. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 18(12), 741–752. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2017.130
- Schultz, W. (1998). Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1998.80.1.1
- Marques, A., et al. (2021). Bidirectional association between physical activity and dopamine across adulthood. Brain Sciences, 11(7), 829. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11070829
- Šramek, P., et al. (2000). Human physiological responses to immersion into water of different temperatures. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 81(5), 436–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210050065
Norepinephrine (Alertness & Focus)
Topics: Locus coeruleus activity and attention (inverted U-curve), daylight and activation, cold stimulus.
- Aston-Jones, G., et al. (2005). An integrative theory of locus coeruleus–norepinephrine function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28, 403–450. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709
- Blume, C., et al. (2019). Effects of light on human circadian rhythms, sleep and mood. Somnologie, 23(3), 147–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11818-019-00215-x
- Šramek, P., et al. (2000). Human physiological responses to immersion into water of different temperatures. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 81(5), 436–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210050065
Acetylcholine (Learning & Memory)
Topics: Attention, encoding and neuroplasticity, signal-to-noise modulation, memory consolidation during sleep, anticholinergic substances.
- Hasselmo, M. E. (2006). The role of acetylcholine in learning and memory. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 16(6), 710–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2006.09.002
- Hasselmo, M. E., et al. (2004). High acetylcholine levels set circuit dynamics for attention and encoding. Progress in Brain Research, 145, 207–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(03)45015-2
- Hasselmo, M. E. (1999). Neuromodulation: acetylcholine and memory consolidation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3(9), 351–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01365-0
- Risacher, S. L., et al. (2016). Association between anticholinergic medication use and cognition, brain metabolism, and brain atrophy. JAMA Neurology, 73(6), 721–732. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.0580
GABA (Stimulus Filter & Inner Peace)
Topics: GABA as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, Vitamin B6 in GABA synthesis, Magnesium and NMDA modulation, L-Theanine and alpha activity, alcohol and GABA receptors.
- Petroff, O. A. C. (2002). GABA and glutamate in the human brain. The Neuroscientist, 8(6), 562–573. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858402238515
- Calderón-Ospina, C. A., et al. (2020). B vitamins in the nervous system. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 26(1), 5–13. https://doi.1111/cns.13207
- Kirkland, A. E., et al. (2018). The role of magnesium in neurological disorders. Nutrients, 10(6), 730. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10060730
- Nobre, A. C., et al. (2008). L-theanine, a natural constituent in tea, and its effect on mental state. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 17(Suppl. 1), 167–168. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18296328/
- Davies, M. (2003). The role of GABA-A receptors in mediating the effects of alcohol in the central nervous system. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 28(4), 263–274. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC165791/
Serotonin (Satisfaction & Inner Stability)
Topics: Enteral serotonin production and separate pools, microbiome and short-chain fatty acids, tryptophan transport to the brain, kynurenine pathway, omega-3 and mood.
- El-Merahbi, R., et al. (2015). The roles of peripheral serotonin in metabolic homeostasis. FEBS Letters, 589(15), 1728–1734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.febslet.2015.05.054
- Reigstad, C. S., et al. (2015). Gut microbes promote colonic serotonin production through short-chain fatty acids. The FASEB Journal, 29(4), 1395–1403. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.14-259598
- Fernstrom, J. D. (2013). Large neutral amino acids: dietary effects on brain neurochemistry and function. Amino Acids, 45(3), 419–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-012-1330-y
- Correia, A. S., et al. (2022). Tryptophan metabolism in depression: serotonin and kynurenine pathways. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(15), 8493. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23158493
- Larrieu, T., et al. (2018). Food for mood: relevance of nutritional omega-3 fatty acids for depression and anxiety. Frontiers in Physiology, 9, 1047. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.01047
Melatonin (Sleep-Wake Rhythm)
Topics: Pineal gland and internal clock, light and melatonin production, antioxidant properties, dosage issues.
- Claustrat, B., et al. (2005). The basic physiology and pathophysiology of melatonin. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 9(1), 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2004.08.001
- Dumont, M., et al. (2011). Melatonin production and light exposure of rotating night workers. Chronobiology International, 29(2), 203–210. https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2011.647177
- Reiter, R. J., et al. (2000). Actions of melatonin in the reduction of oxidative stress: a review. Journal of Biomedical Science, 7(6), 444–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02253360
- Zhdanova, I. V., et al. (2001). Melatonin treatment for age-related insomnia. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 86(10), 4727–4730. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.86.10.7901
Growth Hormones (Repair & Fat Burning)
Topics: Deep sleep and GH secretion, fasting and GH, insulin and visceral fat as antagonists, heat and stress stimuli, age-related decline.
- Van Cauter, E., et al. (2000). Interrelationships between growth hormone and sleep. Growth Hormone & IGF Research, 10(Suppl. B), S57–S62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1096-6374(00)80011-8
- Ho, K. Y., et al. (1988). Fasting enhances growth hormone secretion and amplifies its complex rhythms in man. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 81(4), 968–975. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI113450
- Jezova, D., et al. (2009). Growth hormone response to different consecutive stress stimuli in healthy men. Stress, 10(2), 205–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890701292168
- Corpas, E., et al. (1993). Human growth hormone and human aging. Endocrine Reviews, 14(1), 20–39. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv-14-1-20
DHEA (Stress Buffer & Hormone Precursor)
Topics: DHEA as antiglucocorticoid antagonist, DHEA-S under chronic stress, cortisol-DHEA ratio, age-related decline, glucose metabolism in muscle.
- Kalimi, M., et al. (1994). Anti-glucocorticoid effects of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 131(2), 99–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00925945
- Lennartsson, A. K., et al. (2022). DHEA-S production capacity in relation to perceived prolonged stress. Stress, 25(1), 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2021.2024803
- do Vale, S., et al. (2014). The relationship between DHEA, working memory and distraction. PLOS ONE, 9(8), e104869. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104869
- Baulieu, E. E., et al. (2000). DHEA, DHEA sulfate, and aging: contribution of the DHEAge Study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(8), 4279–4284. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.8.4279
- Sato, K., et al. (2008). Testosterone and DHEA activate the glucose metabolism-related signaling pathway in skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 294(5), E961–E968. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00678.2007
Progesterone (Calm & Hormonal Balance)
Topics: Allopregnanolone at the GABA-A receptor, luteal phase and cycle dynamics, basal body temperature, Vitex agnus-castus for PMS.
- Bäckström, T., et al. (2014). Allopregnanolone and mood disorders. Progress in Neurobiology, 113, 88–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.07.005
- Taraborrelli, S. (2015). Physiology, production and action of progesterone. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 94(Suppl. 161), 8–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.12771
- Verkaik, S., et al. (2017). The treatment of premenstrual syndrome with preparations of Vitex agnus castus. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 217(2), 150–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2017.02.028
Testosterone (Status & Assertiveness)
Topics: Testosterone, behavior and physical characteristics; causes of low levels; zinc; strength training; diet and testosterone levels.
- Zitzmann, M., et al. (2001). Testosterone levels in healthy men and the relation to behavioural and physical characteristics. European Journal of Endocrinology, 144(3), 183–197. https://doi.org/10.1530/eje.0.1440183
- Wrzosek, M., et al. (2020). The causes of adverse changes of testosterone levels in men. Expert Review of Endocrinology & Metabolism, 15(5), 355–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/17446651.2020.1813020
- Prasad, A. S., et al. (1997). Zinc status and serum testosterone levels of healthy adults. Nutrition, 12(5), 344–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-9007(96)80058-X
- Volek, J. S., et al. (1997). Testosterone and cortisol in relationship to dietary nutrients and resistance exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 82(1), 49–54. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1997.82.1.49
- Zamir, A., et al. (2021). Manipulation of dietary intake on changes in circulating testosterone concentrations. Nutrients, 13(10), 3375. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13103375
Estrogens (Cycle Regulation & Neuroplasticity)
Topics: Synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis, aromatase and body fat, insulin sensitivity and fat distribution, endocrine-disrupting environmental chemicals.
- Sheppard, P. A. S., et al. (2019). Estrogenic modulation of memory and the structural plasticity of the hippocampus. Molecular Brain, 12, 86. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13041-019-0442-7
- Lizcano, F., et al. (2014). Estrogen deficiency and the origin of obesity during menopause. BioMed Research International, 2014, 757461. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/757461
- Mauvais-Jarvis, F., et al. (2013). The role of estrogens in control of energy balance and glucose homeostasis. Endocrine Reviews, 34(3), 309–338. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2012-1055
- Diamanti-Kandarakis, E., et al. (2009). Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. Endocrine Reviews, 30(4), 293–342. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2009-0002
Oxytocin (Bonding & Security)
Topics: Oxytocin and stress reduction through social security, cardiovascular effects, context and person dependency, group dynamics.
- Uvnäs-Moberg, K. (1998). Oxytocin may mediate the benefits of positive social interaction and emotions. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23(8), 819–835. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(98)00056-0
- Bartz, J. A., et al. (2011). Social effects of oxytocin in humans: context and person matter. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(7), 301–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.002
- De Dreu, C. K. W., et al. (2011). Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(4), 1262–1266. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015316108
Endorphins (Pain & Stress Tolerance)
Topics: endogenous opioid peptides (POMC/β-lipotropin), intense exertion and β-endorphin, social laughter and pain threshold.
- Chrétien, M., et al. (1979). From β-lipotropin to β-endorphin and „pro-opio-melanocortin". Canadian Journal of Biochemistry, 57(9), 1111–1121. https://doi.org/10.1139/o79-143
- Heitkamp, H. C., et al. (1993). β-endorphin and adrenocorticotropic hormone production during marathon and incremental exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 66(3), 269–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00235105
- Dunbar, R. I. M., et al. (2012). Social laughter is correlated with an elevated pain threshold. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 279(1731), 1161–1167. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1373
Endocannabinoids (Stress buffer & balancing regulator)
Topics: fatty acid origin and omega-6 to omega-3 ratio, exercise and anandamide, immune and inflammation regulation.
- Banni, S., et al. (2010). Effect of dietary fat on endocannabinoids and related mediators. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 54(1), 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.200900516
- Hansen, H. S., et al. (2008). Endocannabinoids and nutrition. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 20(Suppl. 1), 94–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2826.2008.01687.x
- Fuss, J., et al. (2015). A runner's high depends on cannabinoid receptors in mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(42), 13105–13108. https://doi.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1514996112
- Pandey, R., et al. (2009). Endocannabinoids and immune regulation. Pharmacological Research, 60(2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2009.03.019
Gut Microbiome (Regulatory Hub)
Topics: microbiome in health and disease, short-chain fatty acids and gut-brain axis, estrobolome and estrogen recycling.
- Young, V. B. (2017). The role of the microbiome in human health and disease: an introduction for clinicians. BMJ, 356, j831. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j831
- Pflughoeft, K. J., et al. (2012). Human microbiome in health and disease. Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease, 7, 99–122. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pathol-011811-132421
- Dalile, B., et al. (2019). The role of short-chain fatty acids in microbiota–gut–brain communication. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 16(8), 461–478. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-019-0157-3
- Ervin, S. M., et al. (2019). Gut microbial β-glucuronidases reactivate estrogens as components of the estrobolome. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 294(49), 18586–18599. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.RA119.010950
Nourishing Mitochondria
Topics: mitochondrial function and bioenergetics, B vitamins as cofactors in energy production.
- San-Millán, I. (2023). The key role of mitochondrial function in health and disease. Antioxidants, 12(4), 782. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12040782
- Mukherjee, S., et al. (2023). The role of B vitamins in protecting mitochondrial function. In Molecular Nutrition and Mitochondria (pp. 167–193). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90256-4.00019-5
Mitochondrial Biogenesis
Topics: endurance training and mitochondrial biogenesis (PGC-1α), training dose, strength training in comparison.
- Abrego-Guandique, D. M., et al. (2025). The impact of exercise on mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biomolecular Concepts, 16(1), 20250055. https://doi.org/10.1515/bmc-2025-0055
- Bishop, D. J., et al. (2014). Can we optimise the exercise training prescription to maximise improvements in mitochondria function and content? Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – General Subjects, 1840(4), 1266–1275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.10.012
- Groennebaek, T., et al. (2017). Impact of resistance training on skeletal muscle mitochondrial biogenesis, content, and function. Frontiers in Physiology, 8, 713. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00713
Maintaining Mitochondria
Topics: reactive oxygen species and aging, deep sleep and mitochondrial repair, B vitamins, advanced glycation end-products.
- Brand, M. D., et al. (2013). The role of mitochondrial function and cellular bioenergetics in ageing and disease. British Journal of Dermatology, 169(Suppl. 2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12208
- Sarnataro, R. (2025). Neurobiology of mitochondrial dynamics in sleep. The Journal of Physiology. https://doi.org/10.1113/JP288054
- Mukherjee, S., et al. (2023). The role of B vitamins in protecting mitochondrial function. In Molecular Nutrition and Mitochondria (pp. 167–193). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90256-4.00019-5
- Patel, S. H., et al. (2019). Advanced glycation end-products suppress mitochondrial function and proliferative capacity. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 12614. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-49062-8
Mitochondrial Maintenance – Smoothie
Topics: polyphenols and mitochondrial function, functional foods and healthy aging, mitochondrial DNA copy number, cocoa ingredients.
- Gibellini, L., et al. (2015). Natural compounds modulating mitochondrial functions. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2015, 527209. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/527209
- Navarro-Hortal, M. D., et al. (2023). Molecular bases for the use of functional foods in the management of healthy aging. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63(33), 11967–11986. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2098244
- Kim, M. B., et al. (2024). Targeting mitochondrial dysfunction by bioactive food components. Journal of Lipid and Atherosclerosis, 13(3), 306–327. https://doi.org/10.12997/jla.2024.13.3.306
- Perri, M. R., et al. (2026). Modulation of mitochondrial DNA copy number: therapeutic potential of phytochemicals and plant extracts. Archives of Pharmacal Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12272-026-01620-1
- Chidambaram, S. B., et al. (2018). Cocoa beans improve mitochondrial biogenesis via PPARγ/PGC1α dependent signalling. Nutritional Neuroscience, 23(6), 471–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/1028415X.2018.1521088
External Stimuli for Mitochondrial Activation
Topics: passive heat (sauna) and heat shock proteins, cold and brown adipose tissue, photobiomodulation (red and near-infrared light).
- Laukkanen, J. A., et al. (2024). The multifaceted benefits of passive heat therapies for extending the healthspan. Temperature, 11(1), 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/23328940.2023.2300623
- Blondin, D. P., et al. (2014). Increased brown adipose tissue oxidative capacity in cold-acclimated humans. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 99(3), E438–E446. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-3901
- Hamblin, M. R. (2018). Mechanisms and mitochondrial redox signaling in photobiomodulation. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 94(2), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/php.12864
Mitochondrial Supplements – Basic
Topics: magnesium in energy metabolism, vitamin D and mitochondrial function, B vitamins.
- Liu, M., et al. (2025). Magnesium homeostasis and magnesium transporters in human health. Nutrients, 17(5), 920. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17050920
- Sinha, A., et al. (2013). Improving the vitamin D status of vitamin D deficient adults is associated with improved mitochondrial oxidative function in skeletal muscle. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 98(3), E509–E513. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2012-3592
- Depeint, F., et al. (2006). Mitochondrial function and toxicity: role of the B vitamin family on mitochondrial energy metabolism. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 163(1–2), 94–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2006.04.014
Mitochondrial Supplements – Advanced
Topics: creatine for strength and cognition, coenzyme Q10 in the respiratory chain, PQQ and biogenesis, acetyl-L-carnitine, N-acetylcysteine, lutein and zeaxanthin, alpha-lipoic acid.
- Kazeminasab, F., et al. (2025). The effects of creatine supplementation on upper- and lower-body strength and power. Nutrients, 17(17), 2748. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17172748
- Xu, C., et al. (2024). The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults. Frontiers in Nutrition, 11, 1424972. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1424972
- Hernández-Camacho, J. D., et al. (2018). Coenzyme Q10 supplementation in aging and disease. Frontiers in Physiology, 9, 44. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00044
- Chowanadisai, W., et al. (2010). Pyrroloquinoline quinone stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis through CREB phosphorylation and increased PGC-1α expression. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 285(1), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M109.030130
- Jones, L. L., et al. (2010). Acylcarnitines: role in brain. Progress in Lipid Research, 49(1), 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2009.08.004
- Medved, I., et al. (2004). N-acetylcysteine enhances muscle cysteine and glutathione availability and attenuates fatigue during prolonged exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 97(4), 1477–1485. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00371.2004
- Merry, T. L., et al. (2016). Do antioxidant supplements interfere with skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise training? The Journal of Physiology, 594(18), 5135–5147. https://doi.org/10.1113/JP270654
- Bernstein, P. S., et al. (2016). Lutein, zeaxanthin, and meso-zeaxanthin: the basic and clinical science underlying carotenoid-based nutritional interventions against ocular disease. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, 50, 34–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.10.003
- Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) Research Group. (2013). Lutein + zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids for age-related macular degeneration. JAMA, 309(19), 2005–2015. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.4997
- Shay, K. P., et al. (2009). Alpha-lipoic acid as a dietary supplement: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – General Subjects, 1790(10), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbagen.2009.07.026
Systemic Control of Cellular Energy
Topics: stress and mitochondrial efficiency, thyroid and energy metabolism. For mitophagy and Urolithin A, see "Improving Metabolism".
- Picard, M., et al. (2018). Psychological stress and mitochondria: a systematic review. Psychosomatic Medicine, 80(2), 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000545
- Cioffi, F., et al. (2022). Bioenergetic aspects of mitochondrial actions of thyroid hormones. Cells, 11(6), 997. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11060997
Improving Metabolism
Topics: fasting and metabolic switch (mTOR, autophagy, AMPK), sirtuins and NAD⁺, Urolithin A and mitophagy.
- de Cabo, R., et al. (2019). Effects of intermittent fasting on health, aging, and disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 381(26), 2541–2551. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1905136
- Kincaid, B., et al. (2013). Forever young: SIRT3 – a shield against mitochondrial meltdown, aging, and neurodegeneration. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 5, 48. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2013.00048
- Ryu, D., et al. (2016). Urolithin A induces mitophagy and prolongs lifespan in C. elegans and increases muscle function in rodents. Nature Medicine, 22(8), 879–888. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.4132
- Andreux, P. A., et al. (2019). The mitophagy activator urolithin A is safe and induces a molecular signature of improved mitochondrial and cellular health in humans. Nature Metabolism, 1(6), 595–603. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-019-0073-4
Molecular Switches
Topics: mTOR and AMPK as growth and energy sensors, NRF2 and antioxidant enzymes (sulforaphane), sirtuins and DNA repair.
- de Cabo, R., et al. (2019). Effects of intermittent fasting on health, aging, and disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 381(26), 2541–2551. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1905136
- Holmström, K. M., et al. (2016). The multifaceted role of Nrf2 in mitochondrial function. Current Opinion in Toxicology, 1, 80–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cotox.2016.10.002
- Kincaid, B., et al. (2013). Forever young: SIRT3 – a shield against mitochondrial meltdown, aging, and neurodegeneration. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 5, 48. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2013.00048
Common Unfavorable Gene Variants I
Topics: MTHFR C677T and folate metabolism, PEMT and choline requirements, APOE4 and fat metabolism, CYP1A2 and caffeine degradation, glutathione peroxidases and selenium.
- Liew, S.-C., et al. (2015). Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) C677T polymorphism: epidemiology, metabolism and associated diseases. European Journal of Medical Genetics, 58(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmg.2014.10.004
- Tan, X., et al. (2016). PEMT gene rs7946 polymorphism plays a role in risk of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics, 26(2), 88–95. https://doi.org/10.1097/FPC.0000000000000193
- Carvalho-Wells, A. L., et al. (2012). APOE genotype influences triglyceride and C-reactive protein responses to altered dietary fat intake. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 96(6), 1447–1453. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.043240
- Cornelis, M. C., et al. (2006). Coffee, CYP1A2 genotype, and risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA, 295(10), 1135–1141. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.295.10.1135
- Lubos, E., et al. (2011). Glutathione peroxidase-1 in health and disease: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, 15(7), 1957–1997. https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2010.3586
Common Unfavorable Gene Variants II
Topics: NOS3 and nitric oxide, DAO/AOC1 and histamine degradation, COMT Val158Met and catecholamines, MAOA and monoamines, SOD2 and mitochondrial radical defense.
- Oliveira-Paula, G. H., et al. (2016). Endothelial nitric oxide synthase: from biochemistry and gene structure to clinical implications of NOS3 polymorphisms. Gene, 575(2, Pt 3), 584–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2015.09.061
- Comas-Basté, O., et al. (2020). Histamine intolerance: the current state of the art. Biomolecules, 10(8), 1181. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10081181
- Hernaus, D., et al. (2013). COMT Val158Met genotype selectively alters prefrontal [18F]fallypride displacement and subjective feelings of stress. PLOS ONE, 8(6), e65662. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065662
- Kolla, N. J., et al. (2020). The role of monoamine oxidase A in the neurobiology of aggressive, antisocial, and violent behavior. Progress in Neurobiology, 194, 101875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101875
- Flynn, J. M., et al. (2013). SOD2 in mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegeneration. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 62, 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2013.05.027
Monitoring & Biofeedback (Sleep)
Topics: Accuracy of commercial wearables in sleep tracking.
- Robbins, R., et al. (2024). Accuracy of three commercial wearable devices for sleep tracking in healthy adults. Sensors, 24(20), 6532. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24206532
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